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^^^DAIET FAEMII^a:;. 



ITS ADVANTAGES, 



AND 



THE MEANS FOR ITS IMPROVEMENT. 



By X. A. WILLARD, A. M., 

Author of Cheese Dairying in Herkimer County, &c., &c. 



From Transactions ^. Y. State Agiicultural Society, 1861. 



ALBANY: 

STEAM PRESS OF C. VAN BENTHUYSEN. 

1862. 



# 



.V:<: 



DAIRY FARMING. 



Considerable attention has been given, of late, to so systemize 
the business of dairy-farming, that, while the annual products of 
the farm may be increased, its expenses are diminished. 

Dairying embraces a wider field of operations, it is believed, 
than where almost any other kind of farming is made a specialty; 
since, in addition to the manufacture and management of dairy- 
produce, particular branches of farming are also to be regarded 
as specialties, and being so closely linked together, the success 
of the dairyman depends more or less on his intelligence in 
reference to, and proper management of them all. 

Cheese making, of itself, in all its details, is an art which 
requires much knowledge, and long, careful, and varied practical 
experience. And yet the success of the dairy-farmer will not 
depend, altogether, on his ability to manufacture the largest 
quantity, and best quality of cheese from a given quantity of milk. 
Back of this lies the production of milk— the breeding — care and 
treatment of stock, and further back, the production of food, the 
application of manures, and all the various operations of culti- 
vating the soil, and growing crops. 

It is estimated there are considerably more than one million of 
milch cows in the State of New York, and the number of acres 
employed for raising grain, grass, hay, &c., for their maintenance 
through the year, will doubtless exceed four millions, or nearly if 
not quite a quarter of all the improved land in the State. The 
capital invested in land, cows, and utensils for conducting the 
dairies of the State, on the above assumption, will reach at least 
$140,000,000. While the value of labor annually required, can 
not fall short of $20,000,000. 

Thus it will be seen, $160,000,000 in capital and labor, are 
annually devoted to this business in the State of New York alone. 



The average annual produce of all the cows in the State,* if 
represented in cheese, it is believed would fall below 300 pounds 
per cow, which at seven cents per pound, would in round numbers 
amount to $21,000,000. But the average should be made to reach 
at least 500 pounds per cow, or $35,000,000, showing an annual 
loss of $14,000,000. This estimated loss can not be regarded as 
too high, since even in old dairy districts, and among practiced 
dairymen, from imperfect dairy products, poor stock and their 
improper treatment, injudicious management of pasture and 
meadow lands, and in the securing of crops, immense losses in 
the aggregate are annually sustained. 

A plain, practical treatise on dairy-farming, a treatise that 
shall describe minutely the best methods of conducting the busi- 
ness is much needed. Enough, perhaps, has been written, from 
time to time, on the subject, but it is scattered throughout vari- 
ous agricultural journals, and in volumes of reports, and therefore 
is not available to the great mass of readers. Much that is 
written too, is found to be for the most part theoretical, and 
either not yet proved of practical utility, or advising what would 
require too great an outlay of capital, and therefore beyond the 
means of the majority of farmers. Yet it is not too much to 
affirm, that dairymen, generally, have within their reach all the 
elements and means necessary for their complete success, if each 
would avail himself of the experience of others, in all that tends 
to improve the dairy, or the several branches of the business in 
which he is engaged. He should bear in mind that it costs as 
much to keep a poor cow as it does a good one, and that no more 

* The State census for 1855, gives the number of cows in Herkimer county at 36,653; 
improved land, 267,414 acres; pastures, 122,730 acres; butter made, 1,306,377; pounds 
cheese, 9,068,619; milk sold, 54,960 gallons. 

The number of cows in the State is put down at 1,068,427; butter, 90,293,073 pounds; 
cheese, 38,944,249 pounds; gallons of milk sold, 20,965,861; pastures, 4,984,114 acres. 

The U. S. census, 1860, gives the number of cows in Herkimer county 41,566; improved 
land, 279,398i; butter, 1,251,872 pounds ; cheese, 10,901,522 lbs. ; milch cowsin the State, 
1,128,634. The amount of pasture land is not given. 

The following table will show the number of pounds of butter and cheese made in 1850, 
according to the census of that year, in the six leading dairy States of the Union, or in those 
States reported as making over 3,000,000 pounds of cheese: 

No C(iws Lbs. butter. Lbs. cheese. 

New Hampshire 94,277 6,977,056 .3,196,563 

Vermont 146,128 12,137,980 8,720,834 

Massachusetts 130,099 8,071,370 7,088,142 

Connecticut 85,461 6,498,119 5,363,277 

Ohio 544,499 34,449,119 20,819,542 

New York 931,324 79,766,094 49,741,413 

Total 1,891,788 147,899,992 94,929,771 

Total in United States 5,248,6.33 313,266,962 105,535,219 



expense is incurred in manufacturing the finest qualities of butter 
and cheese, Avhich are readily sold at high prices, than it does a 
poor article, which drags in market, and not unfrequently is 
wholly unsaleable. 

In the volume of Transactions for 1860, I gave a brief outline 
of the manner in which cheese-dairying was conducted in Herki- 
mer county ; in the present treatise it is proposed to further 
elucidate the subject, and to present some suggestions on points 
not fully discussed in that paper. 

PASTURES THEIR TREATMENT, &C. 

Before entering upon the business of dairying, it will be well 
to consider whether the land is adapted to grazing — whether it 
has springs, and streams of pure and never-failing water, and so 
located that stock can readily and at all times slake their thirst, 
without being driven, or obliged to make a special journey for 
the purpose. 

A scarcity of water, or where it is poorly located on extreme 
or out of the way parts of a farm, will tell heavily on the pro- 
duction of milk during the season, even though the animals have 
an abundance of food. 

Milch cows are averse to traveling out of their way to obtain 
water, and will often endure thirst for hours, rather than leave 
the herd on a special journey for it ; they do not need much 
exercise, and should be subjected to as little as possible. Hence 
when nutritious food is abundant, and pure water of easy access, 
so that quietness may be maintained in the herd, the best results 
are obtained. 

The management of pasture lands, will be different with dif- 
ferent soils. Broken and uneven surfaces, hard to be tiUed — hill 
sides, where the surface lies near rock — thin or sandy soils, it is 
evident must be studied as to their character, and treated 
according to the peculiar circumstances or difficulties that may 
surround each. 

Lands natural to grass — and these embrace a greater portion 
of the clays and shales — produce pasturage year after year contin- 
uously, if properly attended to, and would often be injured for pas- 
ture by plowing and re-seeding. The impression sometimes prevail- 
ing that newly seeded meadows producing large yields of one or two 
kinds of grass for hay, would, if turned to pasturage, be equal to, 
or of more value than good old pastures for grazing milch cows, 
is erroneous. Rich, old natural pastures, have been found to con- 



6 

tain 1,000 plants to the square foot, having twenty distinct spe- 
cies of grasses, and the newly seeded ground would require to lie 
many years to get that thick matted sward, and of so many spe- 
cies of grasses, at least when seeded, as is common, with two or 
three favorite species. 

The following. table and remarks, from Flint's work on grasses, 
may not be out of place in this connection, Be it understood, 
however, in the remarks above, or hereafter to be made, we are 
not deprecating a judicious rotation of crops on dairy farms, nor 
advocating the continuance of a pasture because it happens to be 
old. Pastures will fail and become foul, and the grass scanty and 
poor ; such lands need breaking up from time to time, and are 
vastly improved by thorough cultivation, and with increased 
quantity and quality of products when again laid down in grass. 
But the practice common with some, of breaking up large fields 
of good, clean, sweet sod, which perhaps may have been a trifle 
injured by the too close cropping for a season, in order to raise 
grain for a few years, and frequently too without the application 
of manures, is believed to be pernicious. 

We have seen rich, old pastures, solid in growth, and yielding 
largely, plowed up, for the reason that a good crop of corn was 
wanted, and Ma^ particular field seemed best suited to the purpose. 
It did produce good grain crops, but after being got back again into 
grass, the annual yield was very much less than on the old turf. 

AVERAGE NO. OF PLANTS AND SPECIES TO THE SQUARE FOOT OF SWARD. 

Whole No. Natural Clover Dis. 

Character OF THE Turf. of plants on graaaes. and spe- 

tlie square other cies, 

foot. plants 

1. A square foot taken from the richest 
natural pasture capable of fattening 
one large ox, three sheep to the acre, 

was found to contain 1,000 940 60 20 

2. Rich old pasture capable of fattening 

one large ox and three sheep, per acre 1 , 090 1 , 032 58 . . 

3. Another old pasture contained 910 880 30 12 

4. An old pasture of a damp and mossy 

surface 634 510 124 8 

5. A good pasture two years old, laid 

down to rye grass and white clover. 470 452 18 2 

6. A sod of narrow leaved meadow grass 

(poa angustifolia,) 6 years old ... 192 1 

T. A sod of meadow foxtail, by itself, 

six years old _ _.^ 80 1 

8. Rye grass, by itself, same age 75 1 

9. Meadow, irrigated & carefully man'd, 1,798 1,702 96 .. 



" These plants in each instance," says Mr, Flint, " were counted 
with the utmost care by a farmer now living in this State, (Mas- 
sachusetts) then in the employ of Mr. Sinclair, and the correct- 
ness of his results may be relied on. 

" Now it is a well known fact that the sward of a rich old pas- 
ture is closely packed, filled up, or interwoven with plants, and 
no vacant spaces occur. Yet in a closely crowded turf of such a 
pasture, only one thousand distinctly rooted plants were found on 
a square foot, and these were made up of twenty different species. 
The soil should be supplied with a proper number of plants, else 
a loss of labor, time and space will be incurred ; but however 
heavily seeded a piece may be with one or two favorite grasses, 
small vacant spaces wall occur, which, though they may not seem 
important in themselves, when taken in the aggregate, will be 
found to diminish very considerably the yield of an acre, even if 
they are so small as not to be perceived. And undoubtedly some 
allowance should be made for the seeds and young plants de- 
stroyed by insects, birds and various accidental causes ; but even 
after all deductions for these, we see that in this State, at least, 
there is no deficiency in the quantity of seed used, and the imper- 
fectly covered ground cannot be explained in this way." 

Sinclair too says : " When an excess of grass seed is sown, the 
seeds, in general, all vegetate, but the plants make little, if any 
progress, until from the want of nourishment to the roots, and 
the confined space for the growth of foliage, a certain number 
decay, and give the requisite room to the proper number of 
plants ; and that will be according as there are a greater or less 
variety of different species of grasses combined in the sward." 

Old pastures that have a fine thick herbage of several kinds of 
grasses adapted to the soil, and coming to maturity at different 
seasons, will generally be found to produce more milk and from 
which a richer, better flavored, and finer quality of butter and 
cheese are manufactured, than from the rank growth of grasses 
on newly seeded lands. Again, newly seeded lands will not bear 
that close cropping, nor will they endure drouth like permanent 
pastures. 

Doubtless when the land has been underdrained, deeply sub- 
soiled, enriched, and then seeded with a judicious admixture of 
grasses of the several species best adapted to the soil and climate, 
a permanent pasture of the best character may be soon obtained, 
and would amply pay all expenses for such cultivation. Yet few 



comparatively, can be induced to enter upon this system of farm- 
ing, and the next best course is to be considered. 

In the treatment of old pasture lands, injured from close crop- 
ping, or other causes, but not wholly run out, it will generally be 
better not to break up, but to leave them for a part of the sea- 
son to resuscitate, running a harrow over the ground in early 
spring, and sowing a mixture of timothy, blue grass, red top, the 
clovers, red and white, and orchard grass, making an application 
of plaster, pulverized bones, ashes, salt, or other stimulating fer- 
tilizers. Ashes, leached or otherwise, remove mosses and are a 
valuable application to grass lands. 

There are pastures in Herkimer county, which have not been 
broken for more than forty years — many that have never been 
ploughed perhaps but once or twice, years ago when the country 
was new, that are yielding an abundance of nutritious food, en 
during year after year, close cropping and drouth, without any 
perceptible injury or tendency to run out, and yet have received 
no top dressings, beyond the usual application from time to time 
of gypsum. The grass on these lands springs up green and fresh, 
with thick fine bottom, a marked contrast throughout the season, 
to occasional patches on the same soil, recently re-seeded. Stock 
too, it will be observed, are to be more frequently found on these 
pastures, thus showing that the grass is sweeter or more nutri- 
tious, than on the newly seeded parts. 

To plow and cultivate such lands, would be to destroy the 
original grasses, and after re-seeding, many years must intervene 
before the new grasses can obtain that firm possession of the soil, 
and the enduring vigor and variety of the old sod. 

The reasons for the successful growth of these natural grasses, 
need not here be discussed — the decomposition of leaves, wood, 
roots and other vegetable matter for centuries, seems to have 
accumulated a surface soil, capable of supplying the best possi- 
ble food, for growing these plants in perfection, which intermixed 
as they are with artificial grasses, timothy, clover, &c., form a 
more closely matted sward, and produce an herbage more nutri- 
tious, and better adapted to the animal system, than that from 
newly sown seeds on recently cultivated lands. 

There are large tracts of country, the soil of which is unsuited 
to hold the grasses of any approved kind, for any great length of 
time. 

They are not natural to grass, and therefore unreliable, and 



■vr 



cannot be profitably employed in stock farms. The character of 
the soil is usually of a light texture, sandy or gravelly ; they 
will require to be frequently plowed, and re-seeded with clover, 
timothy, or other rapidly maturing grasses, and for short periods 
may yield good crops. But such soils do not seem to contain the 
elements necessary for the establishment of permanent pastures 
and meadows, being more suited to the growing of grain and 
other crops. 

These lands stretch away through the Middle, Western and 
Southern States, leaving comparatively but narrow belts and 
patches of land adapted to the dairy. So far, experience has 
shown that the real dairy soils are very limited in extent, and 
this fact, while it gives assurance that the constantly increasing 
growth of our country renders certain a constantly increasing 
home demand for the products of the dairy, and while the nature 
of the country itself precludes any great or extended competi- 
tion, should at the same time stimulate those who have been so 
fortunate as to be in possession of the favored soil, to bring it 
up to its highest capacity, and make their staple products of the 
best and choicest quality. 

As a top-dressing for grass lands, the application of gypsum, 
salt, ashes, bone-dust, lime, decomposed urine, well rotted manure 
applied in fall, composts of manure, river mud, road scrapings, 
or muck ; each and all have a marked influence in promoting the 
growth of grass. 

A more general use of bone-dust, it would seem, should be 
adopted, in order to return back to the soil the phosphates which 
are annually taken from it in considerable quantities by milch 
cows. So large an amount is there taken off in the milk of cows, 
and for the annual production of their young, that the use of 
bone-dust on the older dairy farms, it is believed, will soon be- 
come a necessity. Wherever employed as a top-dressing for grass 
lands, its results have been highly beneficial, and its application 
on dairy farms should be as universal as that of gypsum. 

PLOAVING AND RE-SEEDING. 

From what has been said above, it will be seen that imperative 
reasons only, should impel the dairyman to disturb good perma- 
nent pastures, in the hope of improving them by breaking and 
re-seeding. Of course where they have failed, or are overrun 
with weeds, briars, and bushes, resort must be h9,d to plowing 
2 



10 

and re-seeding. It will be well then, to adopt some system that 
shall be thorough in its operations and lasting in its results. Let 
no more land be broken up than can be manured, subsoiled, and 
thoroughly tilled. If the breaking is to be done in spring, ma- 
nure heavily on the sward, turn under and follow with subsoil 
plow. 

The first crop most profitable for the dairyman will be corn, 
since the stalks, properly cured, make the best of fodder, and 
the whole crop can be turned to good account for stock. With 
the second crop re-seed. It is believed to be poor policy for the 
dairyman to exhaust his land by keeping it long under the plow, 
and in the raising of grain before putting down to grass. It is 
here that great mistakes are made, for the loss sustained by run- 
ning the land to obtain several successive crops, will in the end 
prove to be much greater than is commonly supposed. From 
this cause, often lies the secret of poor meadows and sickly pas- 
tures — the soil has been overtasked, and needs rest and nursing 
until it has gained heart to make ample returns. Two crops of 
grain, at most, are all that good management would seem to 
authorize to be taken in succession from the soil, if the land 
afterward is intended to be employed profitably in grass. 

The great object in view will be, to make a permanent pasture 
or meadow, and thus, by taking a few acres at a time, thoroughly 
manuring and cultivating it, the work is accomplished in that 
piece for years. A farm, under this system, may in a few years 
be brought up to a high state of fertility, and easily maintained 
and increased in its fruitfulness, without breaking in upon the 
main business of the dairy. 

This course is to be preferred to that of disposing of the stock, 
plowing up large portions of the farm at once, and then getting 
back again to grass ; for only a few acres at a time can with 
economy be properly manured, and the work will not generally 
be performed in that thorough manner as when the attention is 
directed to a smaller quantity of land, and to a more gradual 
but surer improvement of the soil. In re-seeding, some attention 
will be needed to have a greater variety of grasses than is com- 
monly employed for putting down pasture and meadow lands. It 
has been shown that in rich old natural pastures, from twelve to 
twenty distinct species are found in the sod, and that the number 
of plants to the square foot are greater when there are several 
kinds intermixed. 



11 

Now the favorite grasses used for re-seeding by our farmers, are, 
for the most part, confined to timothy, the clovers and red top, 
and it must be evident other species can be added with profit. 
Of course the character of soil and climate must be studied, in 
reference to the adaptation of the several species, but a trial of 
a few varieties costs but little, while the results are likely to be 
of great value. Mr. Flint, in his excellent work on grasses, 
recommends, in seeding for permanent pastures, a mixture of the 
several species in the proportion, as stated in the subjoined table. 
This table has been re-arranged, and a second column added, in 
order to show the varieties and the proportions of seed in two 
tables, as recommended by Lawson & Son, of Edinburgh. " The 
climate of Scotland," says Mr. Flint, "in some respects does 
not differ from our own. The latitude of Edinburgh is 55° 5*7'; 
that of Boston 42° 21', while the mean annual temperature of 
the former is 47° 1' Fahr., that of the latter 48° 9', showing a 
very slight difference. But our summers are hotter, and we are 
annually liable to the most severe and parching drouths, such as 
are not often felt in Scotland." 

FOR PERMANENT PASTURE. 

1.— Lbs. 2.— Lbg. 

Meadow Foxtail _ 2 2 

Orchard grass _ -. 6 4 

Hard Fescue 2 2 

Tall Fescue 2 2 

Meadow Fescue _ 2 2 

Italian Rye grass 6 6 

Perennial Rye grass . _ 6 8 

Timothy 4 3 

Red top 2 2 

Rough-stalked Meadow grass 3 2 

Red clover 2 

Perennial clover - 3 2 

White clover 5-45 5 

June grass — 2 

Wood Meadow grass 2 

Yellow Oat grass _ 1-45 

The mixture in the second column is more expensive, but is 
preferred to that of the first, on the probability of its returning 
a, better yield. Mr. Flint favors the idea that with a judicious 



12 

selection and admixture of species, permanent pastures and mea- 
dows of great value may be speedily obtained. The suggestion 
is worthy of consideration, and the foregoing table is introduced 
here with the hope that a trial may be made of a part or the 
whole of the varieties named. In laying down pastures and 
meadows, we have generally followed the usual practice of the 
country, and therefore have had no experience m sowing a mix- 
ture beyond three or four varieties of seed ; but it has been long 
felt that this course was unsatisfactory, at least for pastures, 
where a variety of species, solid growth and enduring vigor are 
deemed of the utmost importance. 

In closing this branch of the subject, it may not be out of 
place to briefly allude to orchard grass, and give the opinion of 
agriculturists, as to its great value as a pasture grass. 

In the Transactions for 1859, Mr. Darlington, of Westchester, 
Pa., thus speaks of it: 

" The usual rotation of crops in Chester county. Pa., brings 
each field, in its turn, into the condition of a meadow for the 
production of hay. The hay crop commonly consists, mainly of 
red clover and timothy. Those two plants afford a favorite and 
excellent hay, though the timothy is rather late in flowering. 
Some farmers prefer the orchard grass (Dactjdis glomerata,) to 
the timothy, for the reason that the orchard grass flowers simul- 
taneously with the clover, and both are ready to be cut the same 
time. Another recommendation of the orchard grass is, that 
when cut, the radical leaves speedily grow up, furnishing after- 
math which protects the soil from the scorching summer sun ; 
whereas the aftermath of the timothy crop is very deficient. 
Nevertheless, habit or prejudice induces the Chester county 
farmers, generally, to adhere to the culture of timothy." Judge 
Buel preferred it to almost every other grass. He says : " The 
American Cocksfoot, or orchard grass, is one of the most abiding 
grasses we have. It is probably better adapted than any other 
grass to sow with clover and other seeds for permanent pasture 
or for hay, as it is fit to cut with clover and grows remarkably 
quick when cropped by cattle. Five or six days' growth in sum- 
mer suffices to give a good bite. Its good properties consist in 
its early and rapid growth and its resistance of drouth ; but all 
agree that it should be closely cropped. Sheep will pass over 
every other grass to feed upon it. If suffered to grow long without 
being cropped, it becomes coarse and harsh. Colonel Powell, (a 



15 

late eminent farmer of Pennsylvania,) after growing it ten years, 
declares that it produces more pasturage than any other grass 
he has seen in America. On being fed very close, it has produced 
good pasture after remaining five days at rest. It is suited to 
all arable soils. Two bushels of seed are requisite for an acre 
when sown alone, or half this quantity when sown with clover. 
The seed is very light, weighing not more than twelve or fourteen 
pounds to the bushel. It should be cut early for hay." 

Mr. Sanders, a well known cattle breeder of Kentucky, says of 
it : " My observation and experience have induced me to rely 
mainly on orchard grass and red clover; indeed I noAv sow no 
other sort of grass seed. These grasses mixed, make the best 
hay of all the grasses for this climate (Kentucky); it is nutritious, 
and well adapted as food for stock. Orchard grass is ready for 
grazing in the spring ten or twelve days sooner than any other 
that affords a full bite. When grazed down and the stock turned 
off, it will be ready for re-grazing in less than half the time 
required for Kentucky blue grass. It stands a severe drouth 
better than any other grass, keeping green and growing when 
other sorts are dried up ; in summer it will grow more in a day 
than blue grass will in a week. Orchard grass is naturally dis- 
posed to form and grow in tussocks. The best preventive is a 
good preparation of the ground, and a sufficiency of seed uni- 
formly sown. The late Judge Peters, of Pennsylvania, — who 
was at the head of agricultural improvement in that state for 
many years, — prefered it to all other grasses." 

With this evidence of its valuable qualities, it is to be hoped 
that many will be induced to grow it on stock farms, adding 
other species also to the limited number now in use, and thereby 
promoting their own, and the country's wealth. 

Where the soil of large fields has become exhausted or worn, 
and from this cause cannot be made to hold grasses permanently ; 
and when manures cannot be had for their improvement, resort 
must be had to a succession of clover crops turned under, as 
perhaps the best means of renovating the soil. When in ajood 
heart, they may then be laid down in pasture or meadows, with 
a reasonable prospect of remaining permanent, and enduring, 
with proper care annually bestowed as to their treatment. This 
system of fertilization, is adopted extensively in Western New 
York, for holding the land good for grain crops, and with the 
best results. 



14 

Meadows should be made to yield annually at least two tons 
of hay per acre, and those that are not reaching that point, have 
some defect in soil, in grasses, or in their management, which 
should be studied, and receive that attention best adapted to the 
particular case in hand. 

CHANGE OF PASTURES OVERSTOCKING, ETC. 

The practice, which obtains with some, of dividing the pastur- 
age into separate fields, and changing the herd, every week or 
two from field to field, is now generally disapproved of by our 
best dairymen. 

Cows confined to one field are more quiet and contented — they 
will usually go over in the course of the day every portion of the 
field, selecting their food, and when filled they lie down to rest, 
and raanufacture, grass into milk. All extra labor, excitement, 
and gluttonous feeding, from an over stimulated appetite, lessens 
the quantity of milk. Everything about the " every day pasture," 
is familiar, and if food is abundant they have no thought beyond 
leisurely taking their meals, and reclining at ease on some favor- 
ite spot, ruminating or dozing over their " kyiitting work,^' as Mr. 
Fish aptly terms it — no shadow of discontent clouding their 
peaceful, and seemingly happ}^ existence. 

But let a bite of grass in new fields be had, and all this is 
changed — they overfeed, and in consequence, their health is more 
or less deranged, they tramp round in every nook and corner of 
the field, in search of dainties — become restless or discontented, 
and not unfrequently some of the more active and enterprising 
members of the herd, try fences and make excursions into fields of 
grain and prohibited crops. 

We have seen herds with one or two unruly disposed members, 
though perfectly quiet and orderly, while confined to one pasture, 
become so restless and discontented, from a change to new fields, 
as to be exceedingly troublesome, and to cause serious losses. 

There are other reasons — the cost of building and maintaining 
a division fence, is a considerable item. The pastures too, will not 
be so uniformly cropped; large portions will get a rank growth, 
be rejected by stock, and therefore afford less nutritious food 
through the season, than when used as one pasture. Fresh pas- 
tures are more apt to produce scours, as is well known, deranging 
the appetite and health, to a greater extent than when confined 
to one field. The argument generally used, in favor of two pas- 



15 

tures, is that the daily tramping of the cattle on the one pasture 
renders the food less fresh and palatable, and that the alternate 
pastures obviate this, giving time for grass to grow, and thus 
producing more food and better results. The conclusion arrived 
at is not true in fact — stock when turned into a new pasture, do 
not rest until they have roamed over and examined every part of 
it, and will tramp down, soil and destroy more food than if the 
same land was in one pasture, thereby really affording or render- 
ing available, a less amount of nutritious food during the season 
to the herd. 

Cattle, it is true, like a change of food ; but this change should 
exist in the varieties of grass, in the same pasture, and not in 
different fields. Of course the aftermath and gleanings from 
grain fields, are to be consumed by stock in fall, as deemed expe- 
dient, but the summer pasture should be one field, as productive 
of more milk, with less trouble, expense and loss. 

Pastures, it is proper to say in this connection, should not be 
overstocked — the supply of food, must be abundant, otherwise 
serious losses will be incurred. 

There is nothing gained by stocking clear up to, or a little 
beyond, the full capacity of the land, and trusting to an extraor- 
dinary good growing season to bring the animals through. Much 
milk will require a proportionate amount of food, and we have 
yet to see the cow miserly kept on scanty fare, that can turn that 
fare during the season into 600 or 700 pounds of cheese. The 
rule should be the largest quantity and best quality of dairy pro- 
ducts per cow ; and not the largest number of cows without 
thought or care as to the respective quantity or quality of milk 
from each. 

Let this be illustrated a little more fully. The annual average 
quantity of cheese made by some of our dairymen has reached 700 
pounds per cow ; the average in the dairy of Mr. A. L. Fish, of this 
county, as has been given in the reports, was in 1845, 775 pounds 
per cow. At the latter figures, 30 cows would yield 23,250 
pounds of cheese, which at 7 cents, amounts to $1,627.50. Now 
compare this with a dairy of 60 cows, averaging 400 pounds per 
cow, and we have 24,000 pounds, which at 7 cents comes to 
$1,680.00 or only $52.50 to balance against the 30 additional 
cows. The average of Mr. Fisher's dairy may be said to be an 
extreme point to reach, but the 400 pounds per cow in the larger 
dairy, is believed also to be more than the average amount real- 



16 

ised by a very great proportion of dairymen. What has been 
attained by one, can by good management, be realized by others. 
Of one thing there can not be much doubt, there is a faulty man- 
agement somewhere, which demands correction, and it is the 
duty of every dairyman to study all the causes likely to influence 
or control the quantity, and quality of his dairy products, and 
try to reach the highest standard of excellence in all that per- 
tains to his business. Let not the land then be overstocked ; 
make ample provision for supplying food for a certain number of 
cows, and if the quantity of cheese in the aggregate is to be 
increased, let the poorer animals of the herd be selected out and 
sold, and their places filled by better stock, rather than adding 
to the herd culls and I'efuse cattle, and scrimping all in their food 
during a part or the whole of the season. 

IRRIGATION. 

As a means of improving meadows, or certain parts of ("airy 
farms, that of irrigation, deserves some attention. An illustra- 
tion of the advantages resulting from irrigation, is presentedto 
the farmers of Herkimer county, in the annual overflow of the 
Mohawk river. The lands lying along the borders of that stream, 
in the towns of German Flats, Herkimer, Little Falls, and Man- 
heim, have long been noted for their fertility. They were the 
earliest cultivated lands in the county, have been severely tasked 
year after year, have received little manure coifiparatively, but 
all manner of bad treatment, and yet retain remarkable fertility. 

The character of the soil on these flats, it is true, differs from 
that of the uplands, being made up largely of alluvial deposits, 
but deprive them of their annual overflow, and they would to- 
day be far inferior to the rich slate lands of the county. Soils 
adapted to the dairy, abound in numerous streams and springs; 
and are so located, as to be often made available in irrigating 
fields, at but very trifling expense. A few furrows turned with 
a plow, might in many cases, on slopes and hill-sides, be made 
the means of irrigating large fields, by turning the water on or 
off at pleasure, at different points, simply by opening places along 
the furrows with a hoe. 

It is not proposed to discuss the subject of irrigation in this 
paper, but merely allude to this means of fertilization by way 
of suggestion, in the hope that those who have fields lying in 
such a manner that the water from springs, streams, or marshy 



lands, can be made available for the purpose, and at no great 
expense, may at least make a trial of its benefits. Numerous 
and well authenticated statements might be given, showing great 
and valuable results obtained by fertilizing fields by artificial 
irrigation, and thus increasing their productiveness. But the fol- 
lowing from C. L. Kiersted, of Kingston, Ulster county, published 
in the Transactions of 1859, is deemed sufficient : 

" I had," says Mr. Kiersted, about four acres of ground, mostly 
rock, with a soil averaging from six to two inches deep, and 
many places the rock was bare, lying on a slope, or sloping both 
ways, with a small stream of water running from a swamp 
through the lowest part of the lots; the land was in grass, pro- 
duced about half a ton to the acre, I put upon it manure ; it did 
no good ; the grass when wet would grow, but would soon dry 
up and amount to mostly nothing. I took a team with a strong 
plow, plowed two furrows in different places so as to take the 
water from the stream over the highest land and let the water 
out whenever I desired it ; attended to it twice a week, letting off 
and on in different parts of the lot. The result was about three 
tons of hay to the acre, cut early and a large after-growth. The 
next year took the water off, the result was less than half a crop. 
The year following let the water on again as before, with the 
same good results. 

" I also had a piece of land, a coarse gravel, nothing but Johns- 
wort grew upon it ; there was a large spring directly above the 
lot ; though the water running, as is mostly the case from springs, 
in a channel directly across the lot, I went to work as before 
stated, and drew the water upon the land ; the result was, red 
top and herds grass came in and grew so that it lodged. Last year 
I mowed from one acre of ground 8,530 pounds of hay, timothy 
and white clover, made mostly by irrigation. I took the water 
from springs of soft water ; drew it in furrows made with a plow ; 
let the water on the land with a hoe. It should be attended to at 
least twice a week ; the water never should be allowed to become 
stationary or stagnant. Let the water run in winter as well as 
summer. The expense of leading the water, when it can be done 
by furrow is scarcely anything — say two dollars per acre. The 
water should be taken off whenever the grass is becoming too 
weak to stand up, and soon after it should be cut," 
3 



18 
\ 

WEEDS. 
" Eternal vigilance is the price of freedom " — from weeds. 

Dairy farming is no exception to the general rule — unceasing 
strife against the encroachments of weeds. Their march is ever 
onward, onward, and an unremitting warfare must be waged 
against them for the possession of the soil. The most trouble- 
some weeds in the dairy districts of Herkimer, are ox-eye daisy, 
yellow daisy, Canada thistle, quack, wild parsnip, milk weed, 
burdock, elder, dock, dandelion, and in some parts of the county, 
sorrel. 

There are others, and their name is legion, that infest road- 
sides, yards and cultivated lands ; but the above, particularly 
the daisies, make inroads upon pastures and meadows, doing 
immense damage to those crops. Biennial weeds are easily 
destroyed, by not allowing the plants to go to seed ; lime destroys 
sorrel ; dock and parsnip should be pulled up when the ground 
is soft. Twenty-five years ago, the land here was divided up into 
smaller farms, with more landholders, and a greater effort was 
made to subdue weeds. Since then many of the smaller farms 
have been bought and added to the larger ; and as farms in- 
creased in size, weeds have become more numerous, until it is 
not uncommon now to see whole fields in the possession of these 
pestiferous plants. It would be gratifying to be able to make a 
better report in this respect, from a region famed far and wide 
for her dairy products; but the facts will not warrant it. Of 
course there are a great many farms in the county (perhaps 
much the larger portion of the land,) that are entirely free, or 
comparatively so, from daisy. But the pest moves on; it has, 
perhaps taken possession of the adjoining farm, and then there 
is a fierce struggle for a few years, pulling up and digging out 
weeds ; but the many myriad seeds, 

" Bestride the winged gales, 
And sailing upon the bosom of the air," 

drop down in pastures and meadows, in such numbers that the 
farmer becomes discouraged, or resorts to the scythe to keep 
them in check. 

The following table may, perhaps, be interesting, as showing 
the vast number of seeds annually produced by a single plant, 
as well also as what is to be contended with when these pests 
are suffered to mature their seeds. The botanical and common 
names are given. 



19 



Botanical name. 



Common name. 



1 o 


A 








a 




« C 


rs S 


o 2 


11 • 


S e: 

o 


^'Plc 


.s« 


O 03 


a, ta 






J- O P< 


°0 r-' 


3% § 


<W « 


O « 


3 « « 


O > 


;zi 


5^ 


13,000 


.... 


613 


40 


45 


300 


150 


300 


12 


170 


2,500 


2 


450 


12 


600 


2 


100 


190 


200 


6 


50 


10 


130 


50 


100 


500 


150 


30 






Rumex obtusifolius 

Arctium lappa 

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum 

Matricaria chamomilla 

Leontodon taraxacum 

Heracleum sphondylium 

Sisymbrium officinale 

Fastinica sativa 

Sonchus arvensis 

Sinapis arvensis nigra 

Stellaria media 

Senecio vulgaris 

Papaver rhoeas 

Capsella pursa pastoris 



Common dock 

Burdock 

Ox-eye daisy 

Mayweed 

Dandelion 

Cow parsnip 

Common hedge mustard 

Wild parsnip 

Com. sow thistle 

Black mustard 

Chickweed 

Groundsel 

Red poppy 

Shepherd's purse 



13,000 

24,520 

13,500 

45,000 

2,040 

5,000 

5,400 

1,200 

19,000 

1,200 

500 

6,500 

50,000 

4,500 



The Canada thistle is not considered very injurious to meadow 
lands. Stout grass soon runs them out, but in pastures they are 
more troublesome. When cut down before the seeds mature 
and stalks hollow, they are not unfrequently destroyed ; the 
application of salt, too, about the plant and in the hollow stalk 
of the stubble, helps the work of decay and destruction. But 
the daisy is more difficult to subdue. Plowing and thorough 
cultivation for two or three seasons will clear the fields. This, 
however, is not always convenient or practicable, without break- 
ing up, for the time, the dairy. Manuring heavily and plastering 
are, perhaps, the best means of getting rid of this pest, where 
they have got a foothold in patches, and are too numerous to be 
pulled out by hand. Make the grass grow, put on the manure, 
ashes, salt, gypsum, and if the grass is thin, sow seed ; but 
above all spread on the manure and plaster ; they do not like it, 
while the grass does, and they are choked out. By this means 
three objects are attained — improvement of the soil, more grass, 
and the destruction of one of the most insufierable pests on 
dairy farms with which we are acquainted. 

Many farmers assert that daisies, when cut early, make good 
fodder ; that cattle are fond of it when mingled with hay, and 
will winter well on such feed. But the plant occupies too much 
ground, makes little fodder, and is altogether too expensive. 
Daisy pastures give a bitter taint to the milk, which is percepti- 
ble in the cheese, so much so, that some of our most experienced 



20 

cheese buyers affirm they can distinguish the daisy farms of the 
county from samples of cheese at the depots. Some affirm, and 
instances are given, where daisies have run out or disappeared 
from lands, and even roadsides, of their own account, no effiDrt 
being made to destroy them beyond early cutting — the means 
usually resorted to for keeping them in check "and making the 
most out of this kind of fodder. 

In some of the States, and in Europe, laws are passed making 
it obligatory on the part of landholders, under penalties more or 
less severe, to destroy certain noxious w^eeds. This is believed 
to be wise legislation : for many a man has a large amount of 
labor and loss annually entailed on him, by the neglect of neigh- 
bors in the destruction of weeds, which, in the first instance, 
were so inconsiderable, as to have been overcome in a few hours. 
Weeds are unsightly objects — they mar the good looks of a farm ; 
they are gross feeders, and occupy a considerable portion of the 
soil, to the exclusion of other crops ; they taint the products of 
the dairy, and a united effort among dairymen should be made to 
exterminate those, at least, of the worst character. Might not 
agricultural societies distribute pamphlets, giving the names and 
drawings of our worst weeds, and the best means of extermina- 
tion ? Or, premiums might be offered for their successful extir- 
pation, and accompanying statement of the means adopted. 

RAISING GRAIN. 

Many years ago, it was considered good economy for the farmer 
to produce on his farm nearly every article needed to supply 
his wants. More recently, the tendency has been to make one or 
two articles leading staples in certain localities, as productive of 
more wealth than the mixed farming of former years. 

Some difference of opinion exists, among dairymen, in reference 
to grain raising, many insisting that all the grain needed should 
be grown on the farm, in connection with dairy farming. Our 
best dairymen, however, do not generally advocate the system, 
beyond what is necessitated from a judicious rotation of crops. 
Flour, therefore, and much of the grain fed to cattle, are imported 
from grain growing districts. Meadows and pastures that need 
breaking up and re-seeding from time to time, will be employed 
in grain raising; but, to break up a good pasture or meadow, that 
is yielding well, for the purpose of "plow land," or getting a 
crop of grain, is believed to be poor policy. Wheat and oats, at 



^1 

best, are not the most profitable crops in dairy districts, and can 
generally be purchased cheaper than can be raised. 

Compared with the production of hay, these crops will stand 
thus : 

One acre in hay — two tons, at $10 per ton $20 

Deduct cost of harvesting 3 



$17 



One acre in wheat — say 20 bushels, at $1 $20 

Deduct seed $2, fitting land, sowing, &c., $5 « *7 

Harvesting and threshing to balance straw. 

$13 

One acre in oats — 40 bushels, at 40c $16 00 

Deduct seed 80c., fitting land, &c., $5 . _ 5 80 

Harvesting and threshing to balance straw. 



.0 20 



Making balance in favor of hay, and against wheat, of $4 ; 
against oats, of $6.80. 

These grain crops are subject, more or less, to accidents, and 
are more uncertain than grass ; hence, the average annual 
returns would be rather less than above the estimate made. 

Corn and barley will compare better, and are more profitable 
for the dairyman, since the stalks and straw of these grains are 
valuable for fodder, and the average annual product of grain, 
will be worth much more than that of the other crops. 

It will be well to have some system of rotation, adapted to the 
soil and farm under cultivation, thus bringing every part of the 
farm into grass again, at intervals of 10 or 15 years. 

If five acres of sod be broken yearly, and five acres be put 
down to grass, ten acres will be annually under the plow ; which, 
for one hundred acres, would give meadows of ten years' stand- 
ing. Under such a system, it will be seen, the land could be 
thoroughly cultivated and enriched, and made to produce large 
returns in both grain and grass. 

ROOTS. 

To the dairyman, the importance of growing roots, for stock 
feeding, cannot be over-estimated. 



22 

In an economical point of view, as a mere substitute in part 
for hay, roots will hold a high place, being among the best and 
cheapest of all foods, for the winter and spring feeding of cows. 
But, beyond this, lies another and by far the greatest advantage 
to the dair3^man : their influence in preserving the health of 
stock. This point is too frequently overlooked by those who have 
the care of milch cows. 

Perfect health is as essential to the animal, in order to get the 
best results in the dairy, as perfection in the running gear of 
machinery, for producing good work. This cannot be too often, 
nor too strongly, urged upon the attention of dairymen. The 
cow should be regarded as a delicate piece of " organic mechan- 
ism," whose use is to convert food into milk, and everything 
a£fecting the health or well-being of the animal, influences, more 
or less, the quality and quantity of material which she manu- 
factures. A sickly cow can not be expected to be the source of 
the highest profit. 

"Whatever the cow eats is sooner seen in her milk than in her 
flesh, since this is one of the outlets which nature gives her for 
throwing off disease, and casting out impurities of the system, 
resulting from bad or ^decayed food and improper treatment. 

The microscopic examination of milk, from animals confined 
in cities, and whose food consisted largely of distillers' slops and 
other vegetable garbage, has shown it to be in many instances a 
reeking mass of putrescence — pus, diseased emanations and milk 
mingled together, forming a filthy compound, very deleterious to 
the health of the consumer. The same general principles hold 
good everywhere. If the cow eats food that is medicinal — that 
has a disagreeable odor — that in any way affects health, it comes 
out in her milk. Hence the greatest attention should be given 
for preserving the health of animals during the winter and spring, 
in order that they may be prepared to yield the largest quantity 
and best quality of milk. We hold it to be almost among the 
impossibilities, for a cow to be kept six or seven months on the 
imperfect quality of hay ordinarily provided for her use, and 
without other food, and retain a high state of health. She may 
be in flesh, but flesh is not always health, and hence the frequent 
cause of innumerable ailments that break out in spring — "coming 
in poorly," horn-ail, soak tail, garget, fever, lassitude, and other 
diseases of stock, well known to dairymen. 

A judicious feeding of roots through the winter has a wonder- 



23 

ful efficiency in preserving the health of animals, and no one who 
hopes to realize an annual average of from 600 to YOO pounds of 
cheese per cow, from his herd, should neglect to make ample pro- 
vision of this kind of food. Carrots and mangold wurzel are 
deemed among the best roots for milch cows ; turnips impart a 
disagreeable flavor to dairy products, but may be fed with profit 
in winter, when the animals are not in milk. The mangold 
remains juicy and palatable for a long time ; it contains nearly 
two per cent of flesh-forming ingredients, and upwards of eleven 
per cent of heat-giving substances, and from experiments made, 
it appears that the addition of half a bushel of Mangold, morning 
and evening, to cows pastured and fed with hay, produced an 
increase of thirty quarts of milk in a week. When the ground 
is properly prepared, and the plants thoroughly cultivated, a 
thousand or more bushels of carrots or mangold can be grown to 
the acre. The carrot is a very sure crop, and on some accounts 
is perhaps to be preferred for the dairy. As many as 2,000 
bushels to the acre of this root have been grown by the applica- 
tion of special manures and extra cultivation. Boussingault 
estimates the relative nutritive value of hay and carrots to be as 
one to two and a half, or twenty-five pounds of carrots as equiva- 
lent to ten pounds of hay. 

Assuming that 1,000 bushels of carrots can be raised on an 
acre, we have an equivalent for twelve tons of hay. But when 
the better health of the animal is taken into account, as well as 
the increased production of milk, and its better quality, it will 
be seen that the importance of growing this kind of food for the 
dairy has not been overdrawn. 

One word as to the cultivation of carrots : They like a deeply 
cultivated and well pulverized soil, enriched with rotten or well 
decomposed manures, and must be kept free from weeds. We 
have grown good crops with little or no trouble from weeds, by 
manuring on sod, turning under and deeply subsoiling the land ; 
they are raised this way very cheaply, and in fall, by running a 
plow along the row at the side of the plants and bending them 
over, may be rapidly pulled and gathered. 

IMPORTANCE OF GOOD STOCK. 

Having all the means at hand for producing food in excellence 
and abundance, the next step will be the selection of a good dairy 
stock ; and it will make no particular difierence as to breeds, so 



24 

long as animals of sound constitution and large milking capacity 
be obtained. 

Among the blooded stock, the Ayrshires hold a deservedly high 
reputation ; and next to them, perhaps, the Durhams are more in 
favor ; the Durhams are large, and some families of the breed very 
excellent milkers, but they have been bred more in reference to 
beef, than great milking qualities, and hence grade cattle are not 
unfrequently preferred for the dairy. Instances could be pointed 
out, in this county, where an effort was made to keep the blood 
pure, the stock became very inferior for milk, and resort was had 
to the native cow. Much has been said and written in favor of 
the superiority of pure blooded animals for the dairy, but it is a 
question whether they are any better, or even as good as our 
best native cows. It is said the Cheshire dairies in England 
average 336 pounds cheese per cow, and from selected cows 560 
pounds, and yet we have numerous examples in Herkimer county, 
where a herd of native cows, sprinkled perhaps here and there 
with grade cattle, have produced an annual yield of more than 
600 pounds per cow. 

As an instance of the capacity of some of our native cows, the 
Oaks cow might be instanced. Hon. Zadock Pratt, in an address 
before the Greene county agricultural society, thus alludes to 
this cow. He says : "In the agricultural journals I have read 
an account of a middle sized country cow (I refer to the cele- 
brated Oaks cow,) bought out of a drove in Massachusetts for a 
mere trifle. Her history illustrates two things worthy of notice : 
First, what we can obtain from the best of our old breed ; and 
secondly, how much depends on good feeding." * * "It is 
stated on the most unquestionable authority, such as satisfied the 
Massachusetts Agricultural Society, that in the first year, with 
ordinary keep, she made but 180 pounds of butter. The next 
year she had twelve bushels of corn meal, and then gave 300 
pounds of butter. The next, she had thirty-five bushels, and 
gave more than 400 pounds. The next year she had a bushel a 
week, and all her own milk skimmed, and then she gave, from the 
5th of April to the 25th of September, the day of the show, 480 
pounds, besides suckling her calf for five weeks. She was exhi- 
bited, and deservedly took the premium on the last mentioned 
day, and will carry down her owner's name with credit to poste- 
rity as long as Oaks grow. 



25 

"In the Transactions of 1849, I find the following record of 
remarkable cows of this country." 

These are cows for the butter dairy. It would be interesting 
to have statistics showing the capacity of individual cows for 
producing cheese ; but the manufacture of that article precludes 
experiments of this kind, except at a loss. When the average is 
made of a herd, it is evident the poorer animals are credited 
with more, and the best with less, than the amount produced by 
each. 

Weekly Length 

Date. Name. Place. produce. of time. 

1826.. . Oaks cow Danvers . 16 pounds. 16 weeks. 

1824 .._ Nourse do 14 do 16 do 

1828 Sanderson cow. Waltham .. 14 do 16 do 

1830 Homer's Bedford 14 do 12 do 

1830 Hazeltine Haverhill... 14 do 12 do 

1830 Bassett Northampton 14 do 12 do 

1845 Buxton Danvers 16 do 12 do 

" John Hase Powell, of Pennsylvania, from a Short-horn cow, 
in three days produced 8 lbs. 3 oz. butter. 

" George Kerr, Ontario county, N. Y"., from native cow, 19 lbs. 
butter in one week, and 16 lbs. for two succeeding weeks. 

" T. Comstock, Oneida county, N. Y., from three-fourths native 
and one-fourth Durham cow, 17 lbs. 5 oz. butter in one week. 

" C. D. Miller, Madison county, made in one week from a cow, 
20| lbs. butter. 

" G. A. Mann, Onondaga county, made 67^ lbs. butter from the 
milk of one cow in 30 days. 

"P. H. Schenck, Dutchess county, made 15 lbs. butter per week 
from a polled cow, and in 21 days 65^ lbs. of butter." 

Now it is evident that cows of this character are not to be 
readily picked up from droves, or from the culls of dairies got 
together and offered for sale, since no one owning a good cow 
will willingly sell her at the ordinary market price. If a dairy 
is to be started, it would be better to pay double the market 
price for a really good cow than to buy a poor one at any price, 
and having once established a good herd, to commence breeding 
in order to supply the places of those worn out by age or failing 
from other causes. 

The selection and possession of the best cows the country 
affords, should be the ambition and leading object of every dairy- 
4 



26 

man. It is one of the pillars of his success ; for, no amount of 
food, care or treatment, can get the best results from poor and 
worthless stock. 

The practice of buying any and everything that is ojBfered for 
filling up dairies, cannot be sufficiently deprecated ; it is labor, 
time and money thrown away — worse than wasted — since it exerts 
no influence for improvement, but induces whole communities to 
drag, year after year, in toil and drudgery, without much com- 
pensation beyond a bare living, and the annual expenses of the 
farm. It paralyzes, also, all laudable endeavor in other branches 
of the dairy, because every dollar .for improvement is felt to be 
more than can be afforded, and promising no ample return. Poor 
stock is the curse of dairy farming, and should no more be suf- 
fered to harbor on the farm than any other unmitigated nuisance, 
whose influence is bad, or destructive to the best interests and 
well-being of the individual and society at large. 

RAISING STOCK. 

The great difficulty in obtaining superior milch cows to supply 
the many and large herds in a dairy district, will render stock 
raising desirable, at least, with those who are striving to excel 
in quantity and quality of dairy products. Our best dairymen 
have long felt, that the only reliable way of getting large returns, 
and maintaining superiority in this respect, from the herd, is to 
raise and educate the animal on the farm, and under the eye of 
the dairyman. Grade cattle, from good milking families of 
" Short horns," are regarded with favor by many, on account of 
size. A cross of Durhams and Ayrshires, is also in high esteem, 
as productive of all the milking qualities of the Ayrshire and 
an improvement in size from the Durhams. 

The Ayrshire blood, it is believed, will prove of great value 
in American dairies, but whatever stock is in favor, the breeding 
should have particular reference to milk. 

The principle of like producing like, will generally hold good 
in breeding for the dairy, hence great attention should be had to 
breed from good milking families, and the parents on both sides 
should be from stock noted in this respect. Guenon's method of 
determining the value of an animal for milk, from the escutcheon 
or "milk mirror," should be studied and understood, and will be 
of aid in the proper selection of stock for the dairy. 

As the production of milk in large quantities is more or less 



2T 

exhausting, sound constitution and health are points also to be 
considered, and an old or feeble cow will not be likely to breed 
as vigorous stock as younger animals in high health. Mr. Finlay 
Dun, in a prize essay on the hereditary diseases of cattle, 
published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
England^ enumerates diarrhoea, rheumatism, scrofula, consump- 
tion, dysentery, malignant tumors, and the affections depending 
on a plethoric state of the body, as the most important here- 
ditary diseases of cattle. Among others, he gives the following 
characters which cattle should possess, in order to perpetuate in 
their offspring a healthy and vigorous constitution : 

" The head small ; muzzle firm and tapering ; nostrils large 
and open ; the eyes full and lustrous ; the ears small, and not too 
thick ; the head well set on the neck ; the distance between the 
ears and the angle of the jaw short, but the width behind the 
ears considerable (no dairy cow should have a short thick neck) ; 
the chest wide and deep ; the girth, taken immediately behind 
the shoulder, should closely correspond with the length from 
behind the ears to the rise of the tail ; the carcass of a barrel- 
shape, for a thin flat-ribbed animal eats largely, thrives badly, 
and is usually liable to diarrhoea ; there should be little space 
between the prominence of the hip and the last rib ; the quarter 
large ; the measurement from the prominence of the haunch back- 
wards to the rise of the tail, and downwards to the hock, as 
great as possible ; the lower part of the haunch thick and broad ; 
the hide thick and pliant ; smallness of bone is a sure indication 
of early maturity and aptitude for fattening. These, among 
other characters and qualities enumerated by Mr. Dun, indicate 
the possession of a vigorous and healthy constitution, and free- 
dom from all inherent disease." 

The calf, too, must have generous feed, and good care and 
treatment, in every respect ; for a scrubby, dwarfed and pinched 
calf cannot be expected to mature into the best cow ; care must 
be taken that it be not over-fed, so as to become dainty, but kept 
in a healthy growing condition. 

Extra feed should be given during the fall, when grass is scant 
and of poor quality. 

Roots, oatenmeal, and the best of early cut hay, fed regularly 
during winter, with well lighted and well ventilated stables, all 
will amply repay the breeder, in the better size, condition and 
prospective value of the animal for the dairy. 



28 

The education of the animal for the dairy, is also of import- 
ance. Docility, good temper, quietness, all of which are necessary 
in a good milch cow, are the result, in a measure, of kind treat- 
ment and early education. 

Many a fine animal has been irreparably ruined by coarse and 
brutal treatment, for no cow that trembles from fright, or exhi- 
bits great nervousness, during milking, will yield her greatest 
capacity of milk. Calves, from the first, should be daily fondled, 
and made familiar with persons ; never frightened or worried by 
dogs, beaten, or cruelly treated. They should have no fear of 
their attendants, but rather express pleasure in their presence, 
and a willingness to be petted and handled ; and when the heifer 
comes in milk, the utmost kindness and tenderness should be 
shown in her management, until the animal is thoroughly broken 
and shows no more nervousness at being milked, than in the 
suckling of her own calf. Heifers that have been well k^pt, will 
begin to come in milk, at two years' old, and are regarded as 
making better cows than when coming in milk at a later age ; 
since the capacity of cows for giving milk is varied by habit, and 
an early development in this respect stimulates the secretions of 
milk, and, as found by experience, is productive of better results. 

MILKING, SALTING, &C. 

Regularity in milking, and good milkers, are as necessary to 
success as good management in any other branch of the business. 
On this account, none but careful and experienced hands should 
be employed. The milker, having selected his com^s, should study 
their character, and be careful not to get their ill-will, for an 
animal that dislikes her milker will not be likely to give down 
all her milk, and soon begins to deteriorate — her capacity for 
milk growing less and less. Cows, also, do better that have 
one steady hand in attendance ; and, therefore, the milker should 
not be continually changing from one set of cows to another. 
Let it be plainly understood that no harsh language, striking 
with stools, nor nnkind treatment of any kind be had toward 
stock, and an infringement of this rule is to discharge the offend- 
ing party on the instant. 

It will make a much greater difierence than iS' commonly sup- 
posed, to have the animals kindly treated, leisurely driven from 
the pasture, and thoroughly milked, than where no attention is 
given to these matters. A careless, poor or slovenly milker will 



29 

soon do great injury to stock under his care. After commencing 
the work, the udder should be rapidly emptied — breaking off to 
change pails, to carry milk, or delay of any kind while milking, 
is injurious, for where a break of this kind occurs the animal 
will not give doAvn all her milk for that time, and no coaxing 
will induce her to do so. 

Regularity as to hours is also important in milking, and an 
equal division of time should be made, say at five o'clock 
morning and evening, and each animal to be milked in regular 
order — the last cow milked in the morning being the last at 
night. But, whatever hour be fixed upon should be punctually 
regarded, since otherwise the secretion of milk in the udder will 
be irregular. 

It will be remembered that the last milk drawn is the best, 
and that if any of this be left in the udder, there is not only a 
loss in quality and quantity, but the cow soon degenerates into 
a second or third rate milker. 

Cleanliness should be insisted upon, as milk is easily tainted, 
and will impart that taint to the products manufactured from it. 
If the teats be cracked, or the udder feverish, bathing in cold 
water and oiling the teats, after milking, with whey butter, will 
goon remove the difficulty. 

The following from a writer in the Boston Cultivator, is so 
much to the point, and states so truthfully what is too often 
overlooked by dairymen, with regard to milking, that it may not 
be out of place to quote. He says : 

"When I first commenced farming, I milked all my cows with 
my own hands ; and, the result was, no one in town could boast 
of having made more butter, according to the number of cows, 
than we. I well remember of having a very noble cow for milk, 
which would fill a twelve quart pail twice a day ; and that a 
friend while visiting us was anxious to milk her. As I was well 
aware of the bad results of permitting a poor milker to milk 
cows that are accustomed to be milked by one faithful, regular 
hand, I unwillingly consented that he might milk her. The 
result was, that he obtained about one quarter less milk than she 
was accustomed to give ; and, although I tried faithfully to 
draw more milk after he had finished milking, my efforts were in 
vain ; and it was several days before I could obtain from her the 
amount which she was accustomed to give. My manner of 
milking was to milk as fast as possible until a cow was milked 



30 

entirely clean. I was obliged at one time to stop milking only a 
few minutes, and I found that the cow had drawn up her milk, 
and I could not get it that evening. This taught me the 
importance of employing one steady, regular hand at milking." 

Prof. Johnson, also, truly observes that " A state of compara- 
tive repose is favorable to the performance of all the important 
functions in a healthy animal. Any thing which frets, disturbs, 
torments, or renders it uneasy, lessens the quantity and vitiates 
the quality of the milk. 

"Such is observed to be the case where the cow has been 
recently deprived of her calf, when she is taken from her com- 
panions in the pasture, when her usual place in the cow-house is 
changed, when she is kept long in the house after spring has 
arrived, when she is hunted in the field or tormented by insects, 
or when any other circumstance occurs by which irritation or 
restlessness is caused, either of a temporary or permanent kind. 
I do not inquire at present into the physiological nature of the 
changes which ensue ; to the dairyman it is important chiefly to he 
familiar with the fact. ^^ 

Salt. — Milch cows should at all times have access to salt. 
Salt is necessary for the preservation of health, and the want of 
it for any length of time has a controlling influence in lessening 
the quantity and affecting the quality of milk. When placed 
in a trough, where it is easily accessible, the animal takes it in 
small quantities and as needed, and is not injured from an over- 
dose as is often the case when it is dealt out at stated intervals. 

LIGHT AND VENTILATION. 

A mistaken notion prevails with many that animals need little 
or no light while confined in stable. Physiologists declare that, 
other things being equal, families that occupy apartments in the 
sunny side of dwellings are the most healthy and happy. Fresh 
air and sunlight are promotive of health ; and yet, in the con- 
struction of stables for animals, many seem to forget that these 
requisites are important. 

One would suppose that in localities where the attention of 
farmers is almost exclusively devoted to stock, everything con- 
nected with the management of animals, conducing to their 
health and comfort, would be the subject of thought. Yet, how 
few even for a moment are willing to give this subject the atten- 
tion it deserves. To suppose that an animal, confined in a dark, 



31 

damp, unventilated stable will thrive and be able to yield the 
same profit that it would if occupying a place the reverse of 
this, is to suppose an impossibility. Disease, though it may not 
at first be apparent to the eye, is nevertheless doing its work, 
and in some way will make itself felt to the loss of the owner. 
On the score of economy, we believe that it pays to treat all 
animals kindly, and to provide them with suitable buildings for 
shelter. We know, from actual experience, that the cow that 
has been wintered in a warm, dry, well ventilated stable, properly 
fed and cared for, will pay for all extra trouble and labor in the 
increased quantity and better quality of milk, yielded through 
the summer following. When we hear dairymen complaining 
that the annual yield of cheese per cow has fallen down to 300 
or 350 lbs., we have strong suspicions that the fault lies some- 
where in the keeping or management of stock. 

We hold that a good stable for stock should be provided with 
windows to admit sunlight ; it should be dry and well ventilated, 
and the same general rules for health, applicable to persons, 
should be ever before the farmer, and guide him in his treatment 
of stock. 

ABORTIVE COWS. 

In my article in last year's Transactions, some facts were 
given in reference to the comparatively new habit of abortion 
among herds of milch cows in some of the northern towns of 
Herkimer. 

The opinion has prevailed here to some extent that the causes 
producing this disease resulted from a lack of phosphates in the 
soil. As the habit had shown itself only on the older dairy 
farms of the county, where considerable quantities of this sub- 
stance must have been extracted from the soil, and carried off 
in dairy products, and not returned, the reasons adduced seemed 
to have some foundation. But, on farms where the trouble 
was severely felt, and where resort was had to turning off the 
entire herd, and introducing new stock, no cases afterward have 
as yet occurred. The subject is again alluded to in this paper, 
because during the present season the habit seems to have shown 
itself with great virulence, in different localities in the county, 
to the loss of very considerable portions of herds ; and from 
inquiries, it is believed, the habit is wide-spread and more general 
than was at first supposed. 



32 

The dairymen of Herkimer are as yet unable to point out the 
causes for the sudden appearance of this disease in certain locali- 
ties and on isolated farms, and the only successful means known 
for arresting the habit is the one alluded to above, viz : disposing 
of the old herd, and filling their place with an entire new stock 
from a disaffected locality. 

As facts are important in reference to diseases that make their 
appearance from time to time, the causes of Avhich seem shrouded 
in mystery, the following from Mr. D. B. Hinman, of Highfield 
farm, Westchester, Pa., is deemed worthy of note. The facts 
were presented to the Farmers' Club at this place, in reply to 
letters of inquiry, with regard to the habit in the locality of 
Westchester. Mr. Hinman hails from one of the best dairy dis- 
tricts of Pennsylvania, and is favorably known by reputation to 
many of the farmers of this State. He says : 

"A herd of thirty cows, within about one mile of the borough 
of Westchester, became abortive during the spring. Whilst 
these cows were taking the bull, a number of persons keeping 
one cow in the borough sent them to this farm to be served ; in 
every instance the cows aborted. None of them had done so 
before, and have not since. This was three years ago. 

" It is now about four years since this theory was first broached. 
Every one ridiculed it, but the cases have become so numerous, 
that most of those who have an opportunity to see its -effect, 
fully believe that when a bull serves a cow that has aborted, 
and w^iilst her organs of generation are still much diseased 
(which is usually the case), he will communicate the disease to 
a cow that he may serve, within two or three days after he served 
the abortive cow, and some contend that he will do it within 
two or three weeks after. 

" We have so many instances where cows have been served by 
bulls running with abortive cows, that very few in this neighbor- 
hood will suffer their cows to be served by such bulls. 

" The theory is, that the diseased state of the cow affects the 
bull, somewhat like the venereal complaint in the human species, 
and he produces in the cows he serves a slow inflammation which 
results in abortion. 

" If you will observe this thing closely, I have no doubt but 
you will find the same results with you. We do not believe that 
a bull that has not served a cow for several months can commu- 
nicate the disease. 



33 

** We have frequent cases where cows have become abortive, 
and the whole herd, bull and calf, sent off and sold ; such cows 
find their way to Philadelphia, and are sold for what they will 
bring. The farmer will then make up his number by purchasing 
such cows as he can find that suit him, within a circuit of a few 
miles, when for years no case of abortion will appear, many of these 
cows having been in the neighborhood for years, and on dairy 
farms. 

" We do not believe it is from anything they eat, or from any- 
thing they drink, or for the want of anything they do not eat. 

"The theory of many farmers in this neighborhood is, that the 
case of abortion is usually produced by accident, by slipping, 
falling, or being driven by master cows, or something of the 
kind, and subsequently cases arise from. mere sympathy. 

"When a cow drops a calf (which will sometimes happen 
among the most careful) in the barn-yard, and at her full time, 
no notice appears to be taken of her by the other cows — they 
will mostly withdraw and leave her to herself. But when an 
abortion takes place, you will generally find it quite different ; 
more or less excitement is manifested, and sometimes very great 
excitement, even to bellowing and pawing, as if something fright- 
ful had happened, and they seem anxious to smell of the dead 
calf. 

"If this theory is new to your dairymen, I think if they will 
observe closely, they will discover good grounds for adopting it." 

In a subsequent letter Mr. Hinman writes : 

" I find that the theory of abortion being produced by wdiat 
the cows eat, or for the lack of something they do not eat, has 
few if any advocates. Against this theory some reason thus : 
They say, as a general thing, we have no meadows and pastures, 
as such — on most farms every field is plowed in its turn, or when 
its condition seems to require it. Farms are usually divided into 
ten to twelve fields, and it is a rare case that more than three 
fields are under the plow at the same time. We have almost 
uniformly a field of corn, one of oats or barley, and one of wheat. 
Plowing up a sod, say this spring, and planting with corn, next 
spring with oats or barley, and next fall it receives in most cases 
the winter manure of the farm, sowed with wheat and timothy 
and clover in the following spring, and if the field had not 
received a coat of lime whilst lying in grass, it receives from 50 

5 



34 

to 100 bushels of lime on the inverted sod before the corn is 
planted. Under this system it is claimed that our farms furnish 
everything necessary to enable our cattle to produce healthful 
oifspring. We have repeated evidence of the same character as 
before presented, so that a bull that has served abortive cows is as 
much damaged for all practical purposes as the caw that has aborted. 

" I feel quite sure that the more your dairymen examine and 
watch this theory, the more thoroughly will they be convinced 
of its truthfulness. 

" How long after aborting the cow will cease to disease the 
bull, we cannot tell ; how long after the bull has served an 
aborting cow will he cease to communicate the disease, we cannot 
tell. 

"With us it is the most ratiocal theory to our minds we have, 
and until something more satisfactory is presented, is likely to 
remain so." 

DAIRY HOUSE. 

The construction of the cheese room, and its proper tempera- 
ture for curing cheese in the best manner, seems to be but 
imperfectly understood, even by our best dairymen. Not suffi- 
cient thought or attention is given the subject by the generality 
of farmers, although more or less faulty cheese, on many of our 
dairy farms, is the result of improper curing in damp, badly 
ventilated and ill-constructed cheese rooms. 

When the weather is favorable, there will be no great difficulty 
in curing cheese in any ordinary room where it may be kept. 
But in damp, cool or rainy weather, without artificial heat, or 
ventilation, fermentation is disturbed, the cheese not unfrequent- 
ly becomes sour, mouldy, contracts a bad flavor, or is so injured 
that no after-curing will be able to counteract evils thus acquired 
and bring it back to first quality cheese. Extreme heat also has 
an unfavorable influence ; then fermentation often goes on too 
rapidly — the cheese swells, and is rendered porous, or sweats 
away, and loses a portion of its oily particles. 

In the construction of curing rooms, some of the points to be 
regarded are, that the room be not damp, nor too dry ; that the 
light be so arranged as to exclude the sun shining on the cheese ; 
that currents of air be not allowed to strike the cheese ; means 
of ventilation, whereby gases arising from fermentation be car- 
ried aAvay ; and finally, control of temperature. A low and even 



35 

temperature, ranging from TO'* to 80°, is regarded as most favor- 
able for obtaining mild and pleasant flavor. 

The precise temperature best, will depend somewhat on the 
manner of making the cheese, and the quantity of salt and rennet 
used. Heat, rennet, salt and moisture, will give character to the 
cheese in curing. From experiments made by Mr. Fish, the fol- 
lowing principles are deduced : 

"High salting and heat, making hard, smart cheese; low salt- 
ing and heat, soft, mild and tasteless; low salting and high heat, 
porous, soft and sharp ; much rennet and little salt, cheese huflfed, 
ran oil, became rank, and spoiled ; little rennet and high heat, 
sour, dry, hard and smart." 

But Avhatever be the styte of cheese, if uniformity in making 
is maintained, it will be best cured in an even temperature. 

Too much air on the cheese, or the rays of the sun, has a ten- 
dency to dry the cheese too fast, to lessen its weight, and make 
it crack. Too much heat, has a tendency to extract the butter 
and produce huffing. But when kept in a moderate and even 
temperature, with ventilation sufficient to carry off the gases 
arising from fermentation, and are neither so dry nor so damp 
as to render them mouldy on the outside, and no under fermenta- 
tion is excited, the best results are obtained. 

In the plan for dairy house herewith presented, economy, sim- 
plicity and convenience, have been studied, together with advan- 
tages, it is believed, for controlling temperature at pleasure. A 
lower room for curing cheese, if desired, can be arranged on the same 
principle, and on some accounts is to be preferred, but it would be 
more expensive, and less convenient in other respects, than an 
upper room for this purpose, while the advantages gained would 
not be so great as to make it of much importance : 

A building 24 feet by 30 feet, story and a half high, will be 
large enough for an ordinary-sized dairy. Light is to be admitted 
only on the north and south sides, as less liable to let rays of the 
sun fall on cheese. The lower part is divided into room for 
making cheese, 12 by 14 feet; milk closet or store room, 10 by 
14 feet ; the balance, wood house, 16 by 24 feet. A piazza runs 
along the sides of the closet and room for making cheese, render- 
ing these parts cooler in summer, and affording a convenient 
place for drying dairy utensils, &c. The upper part of building, 
the cheese-curing room, 24 by 30 feet, 8 feet high, studded and 



36 

lathed and plastered. A ventilator runs from ceiling, in centre 
of room, above the roof, and terminating in usual form, with 
girrangement at ceiling for closing draft entirely, or conducting 
off larger or smaller quantities of air, as desired. 

Air is admitted under the roof (where it joins the sides of the 
building) into the garret, so that by opening slides inside the 
ventilator, above the ceiling, a current of air may be maintained 
in the garret part. Openings, with wickets, are placed at the 
bottom of the room, and along and through the sides of the 
building, to the open air — three or more on a side. These open- 
ings are 10 inches by 20 inches; the wickets close tight or admit 
more or less air, as desired, at pleasure. An ice reservoir, or 
refrigerator, on rollers, sets in the room, in which ice may be 
exposed, if necessary, in extremely hot weather. A good air- 
tight or coal stove ; tables, 4 feet wide, of hemlock^ and not 
painted, for holding cheese ; thermometer and platform scales. 
These are the general features of the dairy-house suggested. 

The building, it is proper to say, should not stand where taints 
are likely to be absorbed by milk or cheese. The whole will be 
better understood by the accompanying cuts. 

DAIRY APPARATUS. 

An opinion prevails with many, that the operations of cheese 
making can be conducted as successfully without as with the use 
of the thermometer, the curd knife, and the vats and heater. 
That is, that the heat for setting the milk and scalding the curd, 
can be ascertained, near enough for all practical purposes, by 
immersing the hand and guessing at the right temperature; that 
the curd may be broken with a blunt instrument, or with the 
hands ; that a part of the milk may be heated to a high tempera- 
ture for the purpose of warming the rest, and that a portion of 
the whey also, may be thus heated for cooking the curd. 

We believe that very great losses result to those who persist 
in this course of dairy management ; for no one will be able to 
judge accurately at all seasons of the year, or under the various 
circumstances to which the hand is exposed, by heat or cold, 
immediately preceding the time for testing the milk or whey. 
Much injury is done to cheese by having the milk too hot at the 
time of setting or adding the rennet. At about 88^^ to QO'', is 
deemed by the best dairymen as the highest heat to which milk 
should be subjected for this stage of the process of cheese making 
— a higher heat being almost invariably attended with loss in quan- 



37 

tity as well as in quality of the cheese. So, with the mass at 
scalding, 100* being the maximum heat for properly cooking 
the curd. 

One part of the great art of making good cheese, and the most 
from a given quantity of milk, is, that the milk be so managed 
that the curd shall consist of the greatest amount of the casein, 
or cheese proper, of the milk, as well as that of the butter. 

The observation and experience of our best dairymen, go to 
show that milk kept at a low temperature, makes the best cheese, 
whether the milk be new or old. The practice of heating a part 
of the milk very hot, for the purpose of warming the rest, is 
neither economical nor convenient. The effect of heating milk, 
is to hasten the ascent of the butyraceous matter. 

When a portion of the milk is heated very hot, there will be a 
scum formed on the top, and in cooling, the butyraceous matter 
of the milk rises rapidly, and is near the surface ; the caseous 
parts are below, and the oily globules are not imbedded in the 
casein, in the same uniform manner as when the milk has not 
been subjected to high heat. 

After the rennet is added, a further cooling of the mass takes 
place before coagulation is perfected, and the butyraceous mat- 
ter rises still more towards the surface ; and the consequence is, 
that the upper surface of the milk will be rich in oily matter, 
which high heat has set free, with too small a quantity of casein, 
and as rennet acts exclusively on the casein, this butyraceous 
or oily matter will not readily work in with the curd. Sometimes 
there will be a thick coat of cream on the curd, and it will be 
impossible, as every dairyman must have observed, to work this 
in the curd in the same manner as if it had been imbedded in 
the caseous particles and coagulated with the rest of the milk in 
the same uniform manner as when originally suspended. This is 
one reason why injury and loss are sustained in heating milk to 
a high temperature ; so in heating a part of the whey for cook- 
ing the curd, it is unevenly cooked and much more labor is 
required. There are other reasons which we deem important, 
but which need not be discussed at this time. 

Let it be understood, that we do not take the ground that 
nothing but poor, miserable cheese must necessarily he made from 
milk, a portion of which has been raised to high heat, and when 
the breaking, cooking and handling of the curd is managed after 
the old manner. What has been the result of our experience is. 



3t 

that milk and curd so treated are injured, and will not make so 
large a quantity nor so good a quality of cheese as when the im- 
proved method is adopted. 

Vats and heaters, therefore, ao constructed that the whole mass 
of milk can be warmed evenly and alike, and the heat at once 
controlled, together with a good thermometer, by which the 
requisite temperature can be ascertained, and a sharp-bladed 
instrument for cutting the curd, are of the utmost importance in 
cheese manufacture. 

Various apparatus for making cheese have, from time to time, 
been invented and put to use, nearly all of which are improve- 
ments over the tub and its accompanying implements. 

Among the pioneers in this department of dairy improvements, 
was Mr. G. Farmer, of Herkimer, in this county, who first em- 
ployed the "vats and steamer — his invention was in use as early 
as 1840. After him, Mr. Paine, of this county, had an improved 
apparatus, at one time quite extensively used in some localities ; 
and almost every year brings out something new in this direction. 




From considerable observation and experience in the manufac- 
ture of cheese, and the means to be employed for the purpose, it 
is believed that Ralph's Oneida cheese vat and heater is the best, 
or among the best as 3^et invented for the purpose intended. It 
takes but little fuel — heat is distributed evenly and can be con- 
trolled. It is the simplest of all the apparatus we have seen, 
compact, substantial, does the work well, and not liable to get 
out of repair, and is therefore here recommended. This is one 



of the recent improvements, bnt has been thoroughly tested by 
many of the best daii-ymen of Herkimer and Oneida, and by them 
and by us preferred. 







As a good cheese apparatus is now regarded by dairymen as 
of the highest importance, the dairy public, it is believed, will 
be benefited by an acquaintance with this vat and heater. The 
preceding cuts will more fully illustrate the apparatus. It will 
be seen from the cut, that fuel is to be applied at the end, the 
heater extending the whole length of the apparatus. This gives 
advantages for working on either side, and the heat being distri- 
buted from end to end warms the water between the vats evenly 



40 




and alike. The pipe at the end passes through a water tank 
where Avater is heated for cleaning up, and is never so warm as 
to be uncomfortable ; the arrangements for cooling the milk, 
canting the vat and drawing off whey are all very convenient? 
and the outer vat being lined with galvanized sheet iron, renders 
the whole substantial and lasting, 

THE CURD KNIFE. 

One of the late and really valuable improvements for 
cheese manufacture is the curd knife, invented a few 
years since by D. G. Young, of Cedarville, in this county. 
It is not deemed necessary to explain Avhy a polished and 
sharply cutting instrument like this, is superior to one 
that will bruise the curd and press out its oily particles. 
It is suflficient to say that this cutter is universally re- 
commended by our best dairymen, and no cheese should 
be manufactured without it. The accompanying cut 
represents the implement. 

This knife is to be used during the process of cooking, 
and until the particles of curd are not much larger than 
wheat kernels. Each particle then, it will be seen, must 
be scalded evenly and alike. Where the particles are 
large, the outer portions are liable to be cooked too much 
and the inner parts not enough, which, when run up into 
cheese, is done so at a loss. The curd being of unequal 
texture, unequal fermentation, with trouble irt curing, 
will be the result which will aifect the quality of cheese. 
It is estimated by good dairymen that the gain from using 
this knife, over the old cutter and hands for breaking the 
curd, is from two to four lbs, for every 100 lbs. of cheese 
made ; but be this as it may, the gain in quality and even- 
ness of cheese, by using the knife during the season, will 
be considerable, while the work is very much less for the 
cheese-maker. 

PRESSING. 

The curd should be properly pressed and the whey ex- 
pelled, otherwise great losses will be sustained, for if the 
wliey does not soon find its way out, it becomes sour and putrid, 
and gives bad flavor to the cheese. 

Cheese should not be over-pressed — a certain amount of mois- 
ture is needed in the cheese to make it mellow, but this moisture 



nil 



I 



41 

should be evenly distributed throughout the curd, nevef accurnu* 
lating in such quantities as to be perceptible to the eye, or so as 
to run from the cheese after being taken from the press. The 
rind, top and bottom, should be closed and present a smooth and 
even surface. At about 80° the curd may be put to press, 
and in two or three hours after, the cheese should be turned and 
bandaged and again put in press. Twenty-four hours will be 
sufficient time for pressing. A good proportioned cheese is about 
half the height of its diameter. 




Herkimer County Cheese Press. 



42 

The press should be strong, handy and faithful in its opera- 
tions, following up its work as the curd contracts. " The Herki- 
mer County press," recently invented by Chas. Oyston, of Little 
Falls, is believed to be the latest improvement in this branch of 
dairy implements. It is of such value that the accompanying cut 
and description are given, that the public may understand its 
merits. 

The principal working parts consist of two sectors and a 
pinion placed between the two upper beams ; their journals are 
in line ; the two light spots seen on the upper beams are the 
journals of the sectors. One of these sectors is geared on the 
outer and the other on the inner face ; the one geared on the 
inside laps past the other, so that the point of its cogs, when in 
line with the journals, coincides with the point of the cogs of the 
other sector — the pinion consequently gears into both of them at 
once. On the right side the pinion is concealed by the beams, 
but the ratchet wheel, which is secured to the pinion shaft on 
the outside of the beam, shows its position. In front of the 
ratchet is the lever, playing loosely on the shaft, and in front of 
the lever is the crank, secured iiy a pin. 

On the left of the ratchet is a dog, which takes into the ratchet 
at either end, as required ; tliere is also a dog screwed on a 
strong pivot on the backside of the lever wit-h a hook on the top, 
while its lower end is shaped to work in the ratchet. Besides 
the already described journal in the sectors, there are others, one 
in each sector; the length of these journals is four inches; they, 
as well as the others, are wrought iron, turned up smoothly, and 
cast in the sector perfectly solid, by a new and ingenious process. 
From the last described journals depend four iron bars or pitmen, 
the bottom ends of which are circular, working in corresponding 
circular recesses in iron boxes fastened to the top of the follower, 
one pair at each end of the follower ; they are secured to the 
boxes by bolts, making an ordinary knuckle joint. The press is 
simple, compact, strong and durable, the weight of iron being 
116 pounds. 

It will be observed that the follower receives its pressure from 
the sectors at four different points, which gives it a perfectly 
parallel or true motion up and down. The journals of the sectors 
work in iron boxes, which makes them very durable. The pinion 
makes 3| revolutions at each operation ; the lever is four feet six 
inches long, which makes it have 88 feet at each operation of 



43 

pressing, if required. One pound at the end of tbe lever gives 
an average pressure of 258 lbs., but as the power is progressive, 
it is less to begin with and much greater near the end of the 
operation. 

The board on which the cheese rests is 22 inches from the floor, 
which is the right height for manipulating a cheese comfortably. 

The follower is 17 inches above this, Avhich gives a clear space 
of 31 by 17 inches for the cheese. 

NEW METHOD OF SALTING CHEESE. 

In salting cheese, the general practice among dairymen is to 
drain the curd of whey, and then apply salt in the proportion of 
one pound of salt (a pure article) to from forty to fifty pounds of 
cheese, according to the time cheese is designed to be marketed. 

The question has occurred with many, Avliether the salt could 
not be more easily incorporated by salting the milk, or applying 
it after coagulation and when the curd is suliiciently cooked. 
From experiments made in salting the milk, it seems the cheese 
manufactured was of good quality, but the proportion of salt 
required was at the rate of 31 ozs. to the gallon of milk, or 8 lbs, 
2 oz. salt to 40 gallons, or about 40 lbs. cheese. The objection 
to salting in the milk is, that the whey is unfit for pigs and the 
large quantity of salt required. Mr. D'Angiles, of Oneida coun- 
ty, has recently advocated the plan of salting in the whey. His 
method is briefly as follows : When the curd is about sufficiently 
cooked, most of the whey is drawn off, leaving just sufficient to 
hold the mass in a loose and finely divided state, the salt is then 
applied and stirred through the mass. The advantages claimed 
are, that much hard labor is saved ; that the salt is more evenly 
distributed througli the curd, which is not bruised and the oily 
particles pressed out by rough handling. This method is being 
adopted by some, the proportion of salt used being graduated 
according to the amount of whey in the curd at time of salting 
and the character of cheese to be manufactured. 

COLORING CHEESE, ETC, 

One of the means employed to give cheese a rich crenm color, 
is to expose the curd before and after salting to the air, instead 
of hurrying it into the hoop or press, as is usual with the majo- 
rity of dairymen. Every cheese-maker must have observed the 
fine golden color acquired by particles of curd that have 
accidently remained out of the hoop and exposed during the day 



44 

to the atmosphere. This is the precise color desired by the 
dealers, and in warm weather an exposure long enough for the 
desired color is practicable, and the appearance of the curd can 
be materially changed for the better, by letting it remain in the 
vat or tub until it has acquired the proper temperature for the 
press. 

It is always preferable to cool curd in this way, instead of 
using water or cold whey on the curd, as is sometimes done for 
this purpose, as these last have a tendency to impoverish the 
cheese, by washing out a portion of its richness, besides injuring 
somewhat its flavor. 

Fine flavor, quality, and the proper texture in cheese are 
important requisites to ready sales and good prices, but all these 
may be present, and yet the cheese sell low in market from its 
bad appearance. The eye must be suited as well as the taste, 
and it is difficult to make the consumer believe that pale, white 
cheese is as rich as that which has a fine cream color. 

Again, many dairymen are troubled more or less in preserving 
a smooth, elastic rind ; the rind checks and deep cracks are 
found here and there in the cheese. This results often, and for 
the most part, from the air being allowed to blow on tha young 
cheese ; cheese when it comes from the press, and for several 
days after, or until the rind has a firm consistency, should be 
kept where the air may not blow directly upon it ; and washing 
the cheese twice a week with hot sweet whey, will add much to 
its outward appearance. Annatto is in general use during spring 
and fall, for coloring milk for cheese making, but as much of it 
is adulterated with poisonous materials, its use should be 
avoided in summer, when the desired color to the cheese can be 
obtained as above described. 

VARNISHING CHEESE. 

When cheese is ready for market and about to be shipped, it 
is the practice with some dairymen to apply to each cheese a 
thin coating of varnish made from gum shellac. 

The shellac is simply dissolved and applied with a brush. 
This coating gives the cheese a smooth gloss}^ appearance, and, 
besides adding to its beauty, is said to keep the cheese from 
loosing weight or gathering mould. When cheese well cured are 
to be shipped to a foreign market, or are to remain in store 
several weeks or months, it is claimed the above treatment is 



45 

particularly beneficial, as serving to keep them in better condi- 
tion with less loss, and, at the same time, adding so much to 
their appearance, as to induce readier sales than when not so 
treated. We have never made trial of gum shellac for this pur- 
pose in our own dairy, and, therefore, cannot speak positively of 
its merits ; but have been assured by good dairymen that its 
application has been practiced with decided advantage. It is 
stated that the cheeses of Holland are usually covered with a 
coating of linseed-oil varnish, and is one of the principal causes 
of their preservation on long voyages, to keep them from losing 
weight ; but anything that would be likely to impart flavor or 
taint to cheese would be very objectionable. This point should 
be ascertained with regard to the above compounds before ven- 
turing upon their use for the purpose above mentioned. 

CHEESE MANUFACTORIES. 

The opinion prevails with some that dairying can be carried 
on with more profit and ease by the establishment of cheese 
manufactories in neighborhoods, and where the milk from the 
several farms is daily delivered, measured and accounted for io 
cheese. Thus relieving the farmer from a considerable outlay 
of capital, care and confinement, while the manufactory, supplied 
with every convenience, and operated by responsible persons 
highly skilled in the art, is enabled to produce from the milk the 
largest quantity and best quality of cheese; its uniformity and 
large quantity together, commanding for it in market an advanced 
price over single dairies. Where cheese establishments of this 
character have been put in operation, they have in general given 
satisfaction to parties interested — the advanced price obtained 
for the cheese having in some instances covered the whole cost 
of manufacturing. These establishments are generally conducted 
on the principle of stock companies. Thus, a certain number of 
dairymen agree to deliver at the factory the milk from their 
herds at stated hours each day. An account is opened by the 
manufacturer with each person, the milk is measured as brought 
in, and the cheese numbered and weighed, and each person 
credited with his proportion of cheese. All this is conducted 
with so much system that, by referring to the books, the shrink- 
age or loss on any one cheese made during the season can at 
once be ascertained. The manufacturer is paid a stated price 
per hundred pounds for the making, care, &c., of cheese. With 



46 

regard to sales, or any matter requiring action on the part of 
the association, the number of votes of each person is in propor- 
tion to the number of cows from which he delivers milk. Hogs 
for consuming whey are furnished by each, also, in proportion 
to cows. Sometimes a person is employed by the season to 
gather up all the milk night and morning and deliver it at the 
establishment; the milk cans are placed by the farmer on a plat- 
form the height of the wagon, at some convenient spot near the 
buildings, the team comes along, gathers them in, delivers the 
milk, and on return, brings back each man his empty cans. 

A brief allusion has been made to this plan of cheese manu- 
facture, because it is comparatively new, and because it may 
possibly prove suggestive, not onl}'' to persons engaged in dairy- 
ing, but as offering a feasible plan, perhaps the best, for those 
unacquainted with the art in districts where it is proposed to 
introduce dairy farming. The outlay for dair\' apparatus and 
suitable buildings on each farm for conducting the business is 
considerable, and when it is taken into account how difhcult it is 
to obtain first class dairy-maids, the care and confinement of a 
dairy, together with the losses that are annually sustained from 
carelessness, inattention, or want of knowledge on the subject in 
all its details, there is reason to believe the plan in time will be 
widely adopted. 

CONCLUSION. 

Dair}'- farming, to be conducted successfully in all its branches, 
requires study, order, system and experience ; and, when well 
conducted, offers ample remuneration. 

Nature herself seems to have stepped forward to protect the 
interests of the dairy, since onl}-- a comparatively small portion 
of the countrj' is adapted to the business. It is more sure in 
its results than many other kinds of farming, because grass, its 
staple crop, is less liable to be unfavorably influenced by weather, 
less subject to the attacks of insects and blights, prejudicial to 
other plants. The fluctuation in prices, too, for dair}-^ products 
is less than with other staples, where the field of competition is 
wider, the market value of the former seldom, if ever, falling so 
low, but that a fair remuneration is rendered the farmer for his 
toil and the capital invested. These products, too, in universal 
use throughout the civilized world, healthy and nutritious, are 
regarded not only as a necessary article of food, but also as a 



4T 

luxury, hence they are of ready sale, and a large demand for 
them must always continue. 

To the American dair3'man the prospects of permanency in 
his business and ample remuneration are of an encouraging 
character, because he has established a footing in Europe which, 
by judicious management as to manufacturing and exporting the 
best quality of dairy products, can be made available in disposing 
of any amount of these staples. 

This outlet is the more encouraging since the European, under 
high rents and taxation, is unable to compete with us in this 
branch of farming, and must ultimately turn his attention into 
other channels of agriculture. And while the home laarket can 
thus be kept clear, prices must of necessity rule high. 

The Journal of Commerce, under date of January 4, 1862, 
publishes an important table of exports, from which it appears 
the exportation of products of the dairy to Europe, during the 
last three years, has increased each year in a ratio beyond the 
expectations of the most sanguine. The following table is 
given, showing the — 

Exportation of Butter, Cheese and Lard from Jfew York to Europe, 

for three years. 

lbs. butter. lbs. cheese. lbs. lard. 

1859 2,494,000 9,287,000 11,015,000 

1860 10,987,000 23,252,000 18,860,000 

1861 23,159,000 40,041,000 47,290,000 

Such an increase in the exportation of dairy products as that 
of last year is without a parallel, and, as greater efforts shall be 
made to manufacture only a choice article, England must in time 
look to this country for her main supply. These facts should 
stimulate those engaged in the business to renewed efforts of 
improvement in all that pertains to dairy management — to hus- 
band the soil, and bring it up to its best capacity in the produc- 
tion of such food as will make the best milk, to improve the 
milking qualities of stock, and the manufacture of butter and 
cheese, ever looking forward to better quality and increased 
quantity, so that the prosperity of the individual and the wealth 
of the nation be advanced. 

Dairying, it is believed, offers great inducements for a judicious 
outlay of capital. It rests on no mere speculative basis — "up 
to-day, and down to-morrow," but is permanent in its character 
and prospects, and sure in its rewards. 



48 

It opens up a wide field for improvement — in the exercise of 
judgment, skill, taste and scientific research, chemistry, botany, 
geology, architecture, stock-breeding, agriculture, all are made 
to subserve the general business. 

As a source of national wealth, dairying to-day falls behind no 
other interest in proportion to capital invested, and we hope yet 
to see all its resources developed, and understood, and the busi- 
ness so systematized that it shall rank bcsi among the professions 
in the land, 

BUTTER AND CHEESE IN STATE OF NEW YORK, AS PER UNITED STATES 

CENSUS, 1860. 
JYortherji District. 

Butter. Cheese. 

Albany 1,318,323 72,005 

Allegany 1,665,621 939,115 

Broome 1,693,444 53,719 

Cattaraugus 2,324,507 1,857,349 

Cayuga 2,084,459 195,505 

Chautauqua _ 4,479,697 1,153,257 

Chemung 865,796 .11,090 

Chenango.. 5,046,772 1,446,538 

Clinton 894,609 87,780 

Cortland 3,375,372 828,055 

Delaware 4,966,118 44,777 

Erie 2,128,107 2,278,276 

Essex 634,289 106,119 

Fulton 717,095 665,684 

Franklin 1,497,162 138,776 

Genesee _ 959,465 119,502 

Hamilton 80,324 7,170 

Herkimer 1.251,872 10,901,522 

Jefferson 4,890,980 4,773,109 

Lewis 1,998,887 2,911,775 

Livingston 1,151,877 235,195 

Monroe 1,651,914 171,960 

Madison 2,135,617 2,589,992 

Montgomery 1,200,528 2,611,448 

Niagara 1,257,891 107,916 

Onondaga 2,363,284 1,127,283 

Oneida 4,140,442 3,519,732 

Ontario 1,188,103 217,934 

Orleans 854,054 143,280 



49 

Butter. 

Oswego 2,171,833 

Otsego 3,286,617 

Rensselaer 1,279,844 

Saratoga 1,500,607 

Steuben 1,983,077 

Schenectady 628,980 

Schoharie 2,203,667 

Schuyler ^. 705,094 

Seneca 663,107 

St. Lawrence 7,193,597 

Tioga 1,317,907 

Tompkins 1,631,982 

Warren 642,829 

Washington 1,696,472 

Wayne _.. 988,430 

Wyoming 1,500,824 

Yates 808,630 

89,020,106 

Southern District. 

Butter. 

Columbia 1,401,954 

Dutchess 2,134,209 

Greene 1,294,099 

Kings 124,158 

Orange 3,033,805 

Putnam 465,235 

Queens . _ 505,985 

Richmond 7,257 

Rockland 244,932 

Suffolk 749,130 

Sullivan 966,793 

Ulster 1,834,078 

Westchester 1,315,528 

14,077,173 
Northern district 89,020,106 

103,097,279 

Milk sold (northern dist.) 53,400 gals. ; value 

Milk Bold (southern dist.; 3,090,177 gals. ; value... 
6 



Cheese. 

1,108,456 

2,161,929 

626,683 

169,489 

231,233 

84,261 

112,671 

48,886 

15,284 

2,353,887 

47,837 

55,452 

87,623 

768,320 

144,640 

981,946 

77,496 

48,392,006 



Cheese. 

71,330 
40,553 
21,300 



5,644 
1,422 

51 

3,990 

10,552 

100 

1,340 

156,282 
48,392,006 

48,543,288 

$11,348 00 
74,371 00 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Butter made in Herkimer county in 1855 and 1860 4 

Butter made in State of New York in 1860 48-9 

Capital invested in dairying in N. York, estimated value of 3 

Carrots, number of bushels grown to the acre __._. 23 

Carrots, relative nutritive value of 23 

Carrots, cultivation of _ 23 

Characters of healthy constitution in animals 27 

Cheese made in Herkimer county in 1855 and 1860 4 

Cheese, average quantity made by best dairymen 15 

Cheese, coloring of._ 43 

Cheese, varnishing 44 

Cheese, cause of checking 44 

Cheese manufactories • 45 

Cheese, exportation of to Europe for three years 47 

Cheese, quantity made in New York State in 1860 48-9 

Cows, remarkable for large yield of butter. _ 25 

Cows, number in the State _,. ,^ 4 

Cows, abortive 31 

Curd knife 40 

Dairying, its prospects of permanency 47 

Dairy house, plan of _ 34 

Dairy apparatus 36 

Education of animals for the dairy 28 

Gain by using improved curd knife 40 

Grain raising in connection with dairying 20 

Good stock, importance of 23 

Hay^ large yield produced by irrigation 17 

Hay a)xid grain crops, comparative profits of 21 

Healthyvstock, its influence on quantity and quality of milk 22 

Heat, deg^e of for setting milk and cooking curd ... 36-7 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



52 

Irrigation as means of improving meadows. 
Light and ventilation necessary for stock.. 

Milking 

Milking, regularity in 

Milking, cleanliness in , 

Milk sold in New York State in 1860 .... 
Milk tainted by daisy pastures. 



111 1 III IN U 

'l ; 


1 Ml III 


|IM 
1 


III! 



000 895 



186 

16 

30 

28 

29 

29 

49 

19 

Orchard grass.. - 12-13 

15 

19 

24 

5 

Y 

4 

3-9 

11 

14 

6 



Overstocking ^ 

Ox-eye daisy, to eradicate > - 

Oaks cow - 

Pastures, their treatment - 

Pastures, old, produce more milk 

Pastures, acres of in State of New York in 1855 

Pastures, top dressing for 

Pastures permanent, seed for 

Pastures, change of 

Plants, average number of in square foot of sward 

Press, Herkimer county, description of 41-2 

Pressing cheese _ 40 

Plowing and re-seeding 9 

Raising stock - - 26 

Ralph's Oneida vats and heater ^ _ 38-9 

Re-seeding for permanent pastures — 10 

Roots, importance of for stock 21 

Salting necessary for cows 30 

Salting cheese, new method 43 

Stock poor, for the dairy, deprecated 26 

Seeds of weeds, number annually produced by single plant 19 

Thistle, Canada, how to eradicate 19 

Theory of abortion in cows - 32 

Temperature for curing cheese 35 

Vats and heater, importance of 38 

Weeds 18 




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